Background Knowledge Related To Past Research Education Essay

This subdivision provides background cognition related to past research undertaken with the purpose of better understanding the consequence of smaller category sizes on academic accomplishment in primary and secondary classs. After a brief overview of early surveies prior to the 1980s, the focal point will turn to the influential state-mandated experiments implemented at the oncoming of 1990s province and federal answerability plans. Constructing on the ascertained demands for future research, this reappraisal does non mean to turn to public policy inquiries such as the cost-effectiveness of little class-size plans. Alternatively, it focuses on the possible academic benefits of such plans as they are related to increasing academic accomplishment. Last, a theoretical theoretical account of the kineticss between category size and academic accomplishment will be suggested, taking into history variables such as student-factors ( e.g. , motive, pro-social behaviour, anti-social behaviour ) , teacher-factors ( e.g. , instructional patterns, pupil interactions ) , and contextual-factors ( e.g. , school organisation, scheduling, internal administration ) . Cardinal to the survey will be whether smaller categories every bit benefit all pupils. Prior to analyzing the relationship between category size and accomplishment, it is necessary to specify these footings. Specifying Class Size and Student Achievement Today, the concept of category size encompasses a broad assortment of instructional scenes runing from pupil one-on-one tutoring to internet online categories functioning several hundred pupils at one clip. Likewise, the construct of â€Å" little † and â€Å" smaller † category size evolved greatly in the class of the twentieth century. While category size denotes the mean figure of pupils entrusted in the attention of one instructor over the class of one twelvemonth, pupil-to-teacher ratio refers to the figure of pupils within a local educational authorization divided by the figure of certificated forces serving the pupil population employed by the organisation ( Achilles, n.d. ) . Teacher-student ratio denotes the same concept. Differences between pupil-teacher ratio and category sizes were found to be every bit big as 10 pupils. In a nutshell, given a student-teacher ratio of 17 pupils to one instructor in a given edifice, the existent schoolroom burden may be every bit big as 27 pupils for one instructor ( Achilles, Finn, & A ; Pate-Bain, 2002 ) . Yet, in malice of these differences, the literature related to instructional scenes has used mistakenly both constructs interchangeably. While existent category size may change during the twelvemonth or even during the same twenty-four hours, pupil-teacher ratio are normally smaller since they may include certificated forces non assigned to one schoolroom or assigned to smaller categories such as those typically required to serve particular need pupils. To paraphrase the above comment, although both concepts are extremely correlated, it is likely that student-teacher ratios will be well lower than the one calculated by the existent category size concept. In fact, it is merely at the schoolroom degree that both prosodies may be indistinguishable ( Achilles, n.d. ) , presuming that pupils are non pulled out during the twenty-four hours. This being said, student-to-staff ratios in public school steadily decreased from 35:1 in 1890, to 28:1 in 1940, and 20:1 in 1970 ( Hanushek & A ; Rivkin, 1997 ) . Hanushek comments that in the period 1950-94, the pupil-teacher ratio has dropped 35 % . Yet, accomplishment in mathematics, scientific discipline and reading as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress ( NAEP ) has remained systematically level over the last three decennaries of the twentieth century ( Hanushek, 1998 ; Johnson, 2002 ) . Although these figures suggests that take downing the student-teacher ratios does non interpret additions in academic accomplishment, the advocates of smaller category sizes point out at the altering nature of instruction. Indeed, the growing of specialised countries of direction such as particular instruction gives the semblance that category size have been reduced ( Achilles, et al. , 2002 ) by take downing the pupil-teacher ratio while category size itself remained co nsistent or even increased over the same period. Other research workers ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002 ; Greenwald, Hedges, & A ; Laine, 1996 ) further contend that Hanushek ‘s decisions lack external cogency since the sample groups used in his surveies were little and non representative of the whole U.S. population. Furthermore, the usage of student-teacher ratios uncontrolled for other features to depict category supposedly hides confusing variables ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002, 2003 ) . Similarly, research in the country of category size and academic accomplishment focused on progressively smaller sizes, comparing categories comprised of between 15 and 35 pupils. For case, while Rice ( 1902 ) compared the effectivity of categories runing from under 40 pupils, 40 to 49 pupils, and 50 pupils and over, ulterior surveies carried out in the 1980s focused on much smaller category sizes, typically of 15 to 22 pupils versus 23 to 35 pupils ( Molnar, et al. , 1999 ; Nye, Hedges, & A ; Konstantopoulos, 2000 ; Shapson, Wright, Eason, & A ; Fitzgerald, 1980 ) . In some surveies, such as the first meta-analysis on category size conducted by Glass and Smith ( 1979 ) and Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , the research would besides include comparings of categories of 25 pupils or more with one-on-one tutoring ( category size of one ) . Research workers such as Slavin ( 1986 ) pointed out that such broad fluctuations between category sizes badly undermined the external cogency of such survei es. Since most of the educational policies involved category size decreases to smaller categories of a upper limit of 15 pupils and given that most of the surveies carried out since the late seventies included comparings of such categories, this reappraisal of literature will non describe surveies comparing the effectivity of one-on-one tutoring to whole category direction. The trouble of specifying the construct of little category size is further compounded by multiple methods of ciphering student-teachers ratios and the complexness of school maestro class agendas. Although research workers agree category size is a ratio affecting pupils and teachers, surveies have been inconsistent or even soundless as to how such ratios are obtained. In the large-scale Coleman Report ( 1966 ) , category size was obtained by spliting the pupil population within a edifice by the figure of module, including non-instructional staff such as librarian clerks who do non teach categories. Since the primary intent of the Coleman Report was to detect the impact of racial segregation on accomplishment in American school, category size was, ipso facto, aggregated to other steps of â€Å" school facilities/resources † and did non account satisfactorily for the impact of category sizes on accomplishment within the larger context of public instruction. Trusting on the availa ble informations, from big samples of convenience and questionnaires, the survey was unable to insulate the impact of category size and accomplishment. Furthermore, other factors such as non-assigned instruction staff, disengagement of pupils for differentiated direction, or even little group workshops taking topographic point at assorted times of the twenty-four hours besides introduce complications in ciphering student-teacher ratios. Class size in itself includes considerable fluctuations ( such as allotted clip, pupil features, instructional methods, class degrees, capable countries ) , which, if left vague, may do an underestimate of the true relationship with pupil accomplishment would otherwise suggest ( Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran, & A ; Willms, 2001a ) . Clearly category size and student-teacher ratios do non compare in that the latter does non account for the existent schooling context in which pupil are larning and there is no understanding among research workers on a standardised method of ciphering such ratios. In the concluding analysis, the research worker must be expressed when specifying his concepts. Adcock suggests a on the job definition of category size as â€Å" the entire figure of pupils enrolled on the last school twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth divided by the derived school figure of nucleus instructors employed on the last of the school twelvemonth of [ a given ] school † ( Adcock & A ; Winkler, 1999, April, p. 9 ) . Such constructed statistic of category size considers merely those instructors assigned to academic topics: English/language humanistic disciplines, societal science/history, mathematics and scientific discipline. The construct of academic accomplishment or academic public presentation in the present survey refers to the single norm- or criterion-referenced standardised steps administered largely at the province degree ( i.e. Iowa Test of Basic Skills [ ITBS ] , California Standards Test [ CST ] , National Assessment of Educational Progress [ NAEP ] or Stanford Achievement Test [ SAT ] , to call a few standardised trials normally used in the K-12 ) . Academic accomplishment differs from academic attainment in that information mensurating academic public presentation are collected at regular intervals for the intent of mensurating advancement. Academic attainment, on the other manus, denotes making educational ends or mileposts that enhance one ‘s social position, such as graduation from an educational establishment, or even traveling up the socio-economic ladder. Although most research will advert separate aggregated academic accomplishment consequences in one or more of the four nucleus topics ( mathematics, linguistic communication humanistic disciplines, societal surveies, and scientific discipline ) for the assorted groups of pupils being observed, some surveies, peculiarly meta-analyses such as Glass & A ; Smith ( 1979 ) , combined the achievement public presentation for deficiency of more specific informations. Although one could gestate other methods of mensurating schooling result, such as reliable appraisal, standardised testing is more readily available as a measuring. By and big, such quantifiable measurings are readily available and will be used extensively in the present survey normally reported. Historical Context of Class Size Research Equally early as the bend of the twentieth century, category size and its effects on academic accomplishment elicited the involvement of educational research workers. At that clip, the focal point was on simple instruction, and more meagerly on the secondary degree ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . From 1900s to 1920s, surveies followed Rice ‘s ( 1902 ) footfalls ; nevertheless, these were shown to incorporate minimum experimental control ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . By the early 1930s, most of the research attempts related to category size went hibernating until the involvement resurfaced in the sixtiess when pupil accomplishment was correlated with school resources ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . Experimental and quasi-experimental research on the subject greatly expanded in the late seventies and early 80s, with the turning unease across the state that public instruction was neglecting childs. Two public studies sparked a renewed involvement in school reforms and category size research: A State at Risk ( Gardner, Larsen, Baker, & A ; Campbell, 1983 ) and the Coleman Report ( Coleman, et al. , 1966 ) . In the aftermath of the successful launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957, the domination of the United States was no longer taken for granted at place ; this crisis of assurance culminated twenty old ages subsequently with the publication of a State at Risk ( Gardner, et al. , 1983 ) indicating at the diminution of SAT tonss from 1960s to the 1980s and at the ensuing deficiency of international fight of the American educational system. At the province degree, boards of instruction closely monitored big plans of category size decrease launched statewide in Tennessee and Wisconsin ; similar actions commanding category size was seen as an easy authorization for public instruction entities to implement ( Addonizio & A ; Phelps, 2000 ) . Furthermore, sentiments in the sixtiess were divided as one wondered whether the expected addition in academic accomplishment realized through the execution of smaller category size would warrant the extra disbursement of public monies. The large-scale â€Å" province of instruction † research published by Coleman ( 1966 ) attributed differences in accomplishment among pupils to household environment, defined as the figure of books available in the place or the socio-economic position of the unit, and downplayed the function of schooling context, including category size, in pupil accomplishment. In a commissioned paper design to edify public policy in instruction, the Coleman Report ( 1966 ) , utilizing standardised trial tonss and questionnaires from instructors and principals, measured the academic accomplishment of more than 150,000 pupils in classs 1 to 12 and found category size to be a negligible factor in pupil accomplishment on standardised norm-referenced trials in verbal abilities and mathematics: â€Å" Some installations steps, such as the pupil/teacher ratio in direction, are non included [ in the study ] because they showed a consistent deficiency of relation to achievement among all groups under all conditions † ( Coleman, et al. , 1966, p. 312 ) . Ignoring the possible impact of category size on pupil accomplishment, Coleman concluded that the socio-economic background of the pupil, the societal composing of the pupil organic structure and the features of the environing community are cardinal factors to explicate differences in academic accomplishment among pupils. However, in the Coleman Report, category size was non clearly analyzed as a possible contributing factor ; alternatively category size was combined with other factors such as text edition and library handiness under the overall umbrella factor â€Å" school facilities/resources. † Again, it must be emphasized that, in the Coleman Report, category size was defined by spliting the pupil registration by the figure of school employees within a edifice, a possible beginning of mistake doing a hapless estimation of the true relationship between the category size and academic accomplishment. Much like in other econometric surveies carried out since ( Hanushek, 1998 ; Rivkin, Hanushek, & A ; Kain, 2005 ; Wossmann & A ; West, 2006 ) , teacher wages and other input variables used as a replacement for existent category size may dissemble confusing variables. Rather than concentrating on absolute accomplishment in a inactive manner, it would be of greater involvement to find: ( 1 ) the fringy additions obtained in little categories over clip through clip series analysis ; and, ( 2 ) whether pupils with different features respond to intervention in the same manner ( Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran, & A ; Willms, 2001b ) . Possibly, the most compelling expostulations to the decisions made in the Coleman Report stems from its analysis of instruction at a given point in clip. However, the same study brought into visible radiation other possible confusing factors in the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment, such as the value of the resources allotted to the schools, the features of direction including teacher and category size, the features of the school ( such as civilization ) , and the features of the community. This argument over the effectivity of smaller categories illustrates the divergent and sometimes beliing involvements between authorities functionaries and the pupils ‘ households when trying to reply the inquiry of the economic value of instruction and the cost benefit of smaller category sizes ( Mitchell & A ; Mitchell, 2003 ) . Research Synthesiss In an attempt of developing a first comprehensive meta-analysis on the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment, Glass and Smith ( 1979 ) retrieved published empirical category size surveies and thesiss since the bend of 1900s, happening over 300 experimental and quasi-experimental surveies incorporating useable quantitative informations. Concentrating on 77 experimental surveies depicting 725 mated comparisons/combinations of pupil category sizes loosely categorized in four types, less than 16 pupils, 17 to 23 pupils, 24 to 34 pupils, and over 35 pupils, Glass and Smith looked at the achievement trial consequences of about 900,000 pupils over a 70 twelvemonth span in a twelve states. Glass and Smith ( 1978, 1979 ) foremost approximated the relationship between category size and accomplishment by utilizing the theoretical account, based on standardised achievement mean differences between braces of smaller ( S ) and larger ( L ) categories divided by the within group standard divergence. Following, instead than making a matrix with rows and columns stand foring the category sizes and the intersecting cell the values of, Glass and Smith used the arrested development theoretical account: = I?0 + I?1S + I?2S2 + I?3S2 + I?3 ( L-S ) + I µ to aggregate the findings. Since construing the theoretical account in footings of class-size and achievement involves at least three or more dimensions, Glass and Smith imposed a consistence status on all ‘s to deduce a individual curve from the complex arrested development surface. Enforcing randomly the average z-score accomplishment of 0 to the class-size of 30, the concluding reading of the theoretical account was represe nted by a individual arrested development curve for accomplishment onto category size. When compared to larger categories of 40 pupils, smaller categories of 30, 20, 10 and 1 pupils showed standardised differential accomplishment effects of -.05, .05, .26, and.57, severally. Likewise, when compared to larger categories of 25 pupils, smaller categories of 20, 15, 10, 5, and 1 pupil showed standardised differential accomplishment effects of.04, .13, .26, .41, and.55, severally. Those consequences included achievement consequences in mathematics, linguistic communication humanistic disciplines, and scientific discipline. One-half of these arrested development analyses involved quasi-experimental or convenience assignment of pupils to either big or little groups. Translating these z-scores into percentile ranks, the additions in the 25 versus 20, 15, 10, 5, and 1 comparings are 4, 5, 10, 16, 21 percentile rank, severally. From the initial 725 mated comparings of pupil accomplishment in both smaller and larger groups, 435 ( 60 % ) comparings favored smaller category constellations by demoing an addition in academic accomplishment. Yet, this addition was non quantified. Achievement was defined either as combined standardised pupil consequences in one or more capable. When concentrating on 160 braces of categories of about 18 and 28 pupils, the meta-analysis suggested even more distinguishable differences in accomplishment: In 111 cases ( 69 % ) smaller categories demonstrated a higher degree of academic accomplishment over the larger categories. Again, this consequence was non quantified. Regressions analyses based logarithmic theoretical accounts favored smaller categories by about one ten percent of a standard divergence for the complete set of comparings. It is of import to observe that merely 109 of the 725 initial comparings involved random experimental designs in a sum of 14 surveies, 81 % of which found smaller category sizes led to increased academic accomplishment as measured by standardised trials or other steps, such as figure of publicity to the following class degree. Others types of category assignment reported in the 725 comparings included: ( 1 ) matched: 236 comparings ; ( 2 ) repeated steps: 18 ; and ( 3 ) uncontrolled: 362 comparings. The last type of methodological analysis involved quasi-experiments that finally weakens conclusive treatment related to the relationship between category size and academic accomplishment. Possibly for this ground, Glass ( 1982 ) further analyzed the consequences of the 14 random experimental surveies. Further separating accomplishment additions for fewer and greater than 100 hours of direction clip, an mean pupil taught in a category of 20 pupils would make a degree of accomplishment higher than that of 60 % of pupils taught in a category of 40 pupils. At the utmost point of comparing, a pupil instructed in a category of five pupils would surpass a pupil in a category of 40 pupils by 30 percentile ranks. This survey efficaciously demonstrated that pupils in smaller category achieve at a higher degree. Yet, even in the instance of experimental comparings, consequence sizes are limited unless the size of the little category beads below 20 pupils. Glass and Smith argue in favour of smaller category size. Two of import issues seem to weaken the statement that smaller categories are more effectual than larger 1s. First, the 109 comparings were really aggregated by the writers into about 30 comparings. In many cases, the same larger and smaller groups and their public presentations had been evaluated on the footing of different conditions, such as sum of direction or capable countries. In other instances, the capable countries measured were combined. Second, consequences reported reflect the public presentation of disparate sizes, such as category of 1 pupil vs. category of 30 pupils, or a category of 5 pupils vs. a category of 30 pupils. Education Research Services ( 1980 ) claims that the Glass and Smith meta-analysis overemphasizes the public presentation of highly little instructional scene, one to five pupils. Hedges and Stock ( 1983 ) proceeded to reanalyze the Glass meta-analysis and stated that, and gave proof to the determination that category sizes below 20s pupils are efficac iously more contributing to advancing academic accomplishment. Subsequently, this initial analysis by Glass ( 1979 ) was further expanded ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) to include the deductions for educational policy determinations. Although the literature tends to depict category sizes below nine pupils as tutoring scene, a context beyond the range of the present survey, it is notable to advert the meta-analysis carried out on category sizes of nine pupils or less ( Cohen, Kulik, & A ; Kulik, 1982 ) . At the bosom of the contention, we find the really construct of practical significance and matter-of-fact deductions of systemic alterations towards take downing category sizes. Smaller category sizes seem to be effectual. However, larger effects are noticed in category size of less than 20 pupils. In their meta-analysis of tutoring categories of 9 pupils or less, Cohen, et Al. ( 1982 ) measured consequence sizes based on 65 surveies. Their findings confirmed Glass greater consequence size s ( differences of agencies of both experimental and control groups divided by the standard divergence of the control group ) in favour of smaller category sizes. Interestingly, groups tutored by equals achieved a greater addition than those entrusted in the instruction of regular instructors. This once more intimations at the demand to foster place context variables. Clearly, category size entirely does non do greater academic accomplishment. Both Glass surveies confirmed the sentiment mostly spread in educational circles that little category sizes were more contributing to student larning. The part of this meta-analysis to the research country is treble: it established the benefit of category size below 20 pupils ; gave the drift for statewide experimental class-size decrease ; and, eventually emphasized the function of learning procedures, such as clip on undertaking, as implicit in grounds doing the positive impact of smaller category size on academic accomplishment. However, limited figure of experimental analyses retained by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) caused cogency concerns: Slavin ( 1989 ) contended that, by restricting the meta-analysis to merely 14 experimental surveies, the Glass, et all decisions lost in external cogency and generalizability what was gained in internal cogency. Based on the scrutiny of Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , it seems that the lone ample consequence was found when comparing 10-student categories vs. a 30 pupil categories and the greatest consequence of category size on pupil accomplishment is without a uncertainty one-on-one tutoring. However, the most common application of the construct of smaller category size would compare differences in accomplishment between groups of 14-20 pupils vs. 30 or more pupils in one category. Slavin ( 1989 ) introduced a best grounds synthesis, uniting the elements found in meta-analysis with narrative reappraisal. He selected eight random category assignment surveies comparing the consequences of standardised reading and mathematics trials in smaller and larger categories at the simple degree. Surveies had to compare larger categories to categories at least 30 % smaller with a student/teacher ratio non transcending 20:1. The selected surveies analyzed smaller category size plans of at least one twelvemonth in continuance, with either random assignment to alternate category sizes, or fiting stipulations. Effect sizes were based on the difference between the little category accomplishment mean ( experimental group ) and the larger category accomplishment mean ( command group ) divided by post-test standard divergence of the control group. This is the same definition of consequence size introduced by Glass and Smith. On norm, these surveies compared groups of 27 pupils to g roups of 15 pupils. Even though these eight surveies were well-controlled and documented surveies, the average consequence size observed was merely +.13 ( Slavin, 1989, p. 251 ) . Discussions about such little effects as measured by standardised trials in both mathematics and linguistic communication humanistic disciplines seem to indicate at the instructor instructional bringing staying consistent regardless of the category size. The type of interactions, such as expressed direct direction, between pupils and instructors had already been identified as an influential factors in the Coleman study ( 1966 ) . This observation was once more echoed by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) as they note that category size is merely one variable impacting effectual direction. In the aftermath of a contention on appropriate usage of support for underachieving schools, the Educational Research Service ( ERS ) published a study ( Porwoll, 1978 ) on the province of the research on category size mentioning over 100 surveies which suggested little consequence sizes, most of which were correlational with some or small control of other variables such as teacher- , student- , and school-related contexts. Although this peculiar research was inconclusive, a subsequent Erbium survey carried out one decennary subsequently corroborated the findings of Glass and Smith ( Robinson & A ; Wittebols, 1986 ) and besides added an of import component to their treatments. Although smaller category sizes seem positively associated with an addition in academic accomplishment, smaller category sizes entirely do non ensue in increased pupil public presentation. Adding on to Glass ‘ meta-analysis and Slavin ‘s best grounds synthesis, Robinson used the related bunch attack to reexamine K-12 research surveies conducted between 1950 and 1985, affecting category sizes greater than five pupils. Studies were aggregated within bunchs stand foring of import factors act uponing category size determinations: capable affairs, class degrees, pupil profiles, instructional patterns, and pupil behaviours. The impact of category size on pupil accomplishment â€Å" varies by class degree, student features, capable countries, learning methods, and other learning intercessions. † ( Robinson, 1990, p. 90 ) Robinson and Wittebols meta-analysis unluckily does non supply any consequence sizes but simply sort the surveies as to important differences, prefering little category sizes, larger category sizes, or bearing no consequence on academic accomplishment. Robinson conclude that positive consequence of category size are consistent in grade k-3, rebuff in classs 4-8, and unperceivable in grades 9-12. Furthermore, lower SES pupils are found to profit most of smaller category sizes. Again, these decisions do non include consequence sizes. Nevertheless, Robinson ‘s survey clarifies the construct that optimum category size is a absurd inquiry. Smaller category sizes benefit pupils otherwise, harmonizing to their societal contexts, personal background, grade degree, and academic topic. The observation that smaller category size entirely does non interpret into academic accomplishment ties in with the observations of Coleman ( 1966 ) and a latter version of Glass ‘ meta-analyses ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) , which acknowledges that category size entirely does non hold a causal consequence on pupil accomplishment. Given this context, the focal point must switch from a direct relationship between category size to academic accomplishment to the existent mechanisms that link smaller category size to higher academic accomplishment. This reading of anterior research by Robinson announced a new way that recognized the complexness of the relationship between academic accomplishment and category size. The demand to command potentially confusing variables such as pupil past academic public presentation, already emphasized by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , became cardinal in most post-1980s category size surveies as research workers recognized that surveies carried out on the subject of academic accomplishment and category sizes suffered from hapless sampling, methodological defects, or unequal design of quasi-experiments ( Finn, 2002 ; Slavin, 1989 ) . Research, was called to go more sophisticated, and history for several effects on different groups of pupils ( i.e. accomplishment, ethnicity, English command ) within different contexts ( vitamin E, g, , school scene, category size, instructional methods ) . Meanwhile, it is notable to indicate out that research on category sizes at secondary or post-secondary degrees has been badly limited to this twenty-four hours. Although critics of the Glass and Smith analysis ( 1979 ) , such as Slavin ( 1989 ) , contended defects such as some surveies selected within the meta-analysis were of short continuance ( every bit small as 100 hours of differentiated direction ) , comparing disproportionate sizes ( one-on-one tutoring vs. 25 pupil category ) , or even measure topic of non academic nature ( such as tennis ) , most of these decisions were subsequently sustained by subsequent research on large-scale category size decrease undertakings carried out in the same decennary ( Finn, 1998 ) . In malice of methodological differences, the research synthesis carried out by Glass ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ; Glass & A ; Smith, 1978, 1979 ) , Slavin ( 1984, 1986 ; 1989 ) , and Robinson and Wittebols ( 1986 ) , all conclude that pupils enrolled in categories of less than 20 pupils perform better. Furthermore, smaller category sizes cause a important addition in academic public presentation particularly among the primary class ( K-3 ) . Robinson and Wittebols every bit good as the Smith, at Al. ( 1982 ) announced a new way in the research, bespeaking clearly that cut downing category size entirely would non do a direct addition in student accomplishment unless instructors adopt different schoolroom processs and instructional methods. Robinson besides pointed at the economically deprived pupils as those who were the most likely to profit from smaller categories, The apprehension of chairing factors such as instructor makings and pupil background in the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment was further enhanced by a national survey conducted by the Policy Information centre ( Wenglinsky, 1997 ) . The survey originated from a school finance attack, trying to associate disbursement of public financess and the open end of schooling: academic accomplishment. Therefore, it is merely by the way that Wenglinsky stumbled on the connexion between category sizes and academic accomplishment. The graduated table of When Money Matters, non unlike the Coleman Report thirty old ages earlier, covered the state, with dramatically different decisions. Using district-level informations from three different databases maintained by the National Center for Educational Statistics, Wenglinsky grouped 10,000 fourth-graders in 203 territories and 10,000 eight-graders in 182 territories harmonizing to socio-economic satus. Figure 1. Wenglinsky ‘s Hypothesized Paths to Achievement The linking of these different databases allowed distinction between types of disbursement in a manner that would hold been impossible at the clip the Coleman Report was produced. Indeed, aggregated disbursement per pupil outgo can non account for the types of outgos incurred, some of which are positively linked to academic accomplishment while some are non. Furthermore, the Coleman Report was unable to see cost of instruction fluctuation across provinces. The National Assessment of Educational Progress database ( which drew the teacher-student ratio ) provided non merely academic achievement information of a countrywide pupil samples, but besides valuable information about the features of school clime. The Common Core of Data database gathered fiscal information at the territory degree ; eventually, the Teacher ‘s Cost Index database besides maintained by the U.S. Department of Education accounted for instructor cost derived functions among provinces. Through a series of multi variate arrested developments, Wenglinsky ‘s concluded that increasing school territory disposal and instructional outgos to increase teacher-student ratios, in bend, raises fourth-grader academic accomplishment in mathematics. Likewise, expenditures besides affect the public presentation of eighth-grade pupils. However, the increased teacher-student ratio is believed to diminish behavioural jobs among pupils and put a positive tone to school environment. These two variables are positively linked to an addition in academic accomplishment at that class degrees. Interestingly, passing on installations, school-level disposal, and expenditures to enroll extremely educated instructors are non found to be straight associated to academic accomplishment. And Wenglinsky to reason â€Å" Because the [ old ] surveies did non stipulate steps of school environment, the consequence of school disbursement on accomplishment as mediated by environment remains uncontrived. † ( Wenglinsky , 1997, p. 21 ) In the middle/junior high classs, academic accomplishment seems mediated by an increased in societal coherence created by smaller category. Again, this decision points at mediation between category size and academic accomplishment. Constructing a 2 by 2 factorial matrix uniting territory with above- and below-average socio-economic position ( SES ) and territories with above- and below-average instructor cost, Wenglinsky concludes that the largest additions in accomplishment in mathematics were obtained in territories with below-average pupil SES and above-average instructor cost. Study consequences indicate that higher teacher-student ratios in 4th class are positively associated with higher accomplishment in mathematics. In 8th class, teacher-student ratios is linked to a positive school environment ( low teacher- and student-absenteeism, regard of belongings, low category film editing rate, low tardiness rate, teacher control over instruction/course content ) . Po sitive school content, in bend was positively associated with higher accomplishment in mathematics. Large-scale State Experiments Project Prime Time Piloted foremost in 1981-82 in a limited-size experiment of category size decrease in primary classs K-2 with student-ratios of 14:1, the five-year undertaking initiated by Indiana Governor Lamar Alexander ( future Secretary of Education during the George H. W. Bush presidential term ) started in earnest in 1984-85 with category size decrease of 18:1 in classs K-3.. By 2008-09, project Prime Time was in its 25th twelvemonth of execution ( Indiana Department of Education, 2010 ) . A early execution survey ( McGiverin, Gilman, & A ; Tillitski, 1989 ) investigated the public presentation of 2nd grade pupils at the terminal of two old ages of decreased category size direction ( 19.1:1 ) demonstrated a greater academic accomplishment in reading and math measured by standardised trials than their opposite numbers in big categories averaging 26.4 pupils. Six indiscriminately selected schools and school corporations ( territories ) with pupils that had received intervention were compared to three schools whose pupils were included in control groups. 1,940 Prime Time pupil tonss on standardised trials ( Cognitive Ability Test – Cat, Iowa Test of Basic Skills – ITBS ) in mathematics and reading in 10 surveies were compared to the related public presentation of 2,027 pupils from larger categories. The Fisher reverse chi-square calculation for schools with smaller category sizes with a ratio 19:1 was important ( I†¡2 =190.45, df = 40, P & lt ; .001 ) , and the surveies mean differences between groups divided by the two groups pooled standard divergence were averaged within a meta-analysis to give an consequence size of.34 SD for all subtests ( p. 51 ) . This analysis suggests that Prime Time pupils enrolled in smaller category perform better academically. Yet, interestingly, the Indiana Department of Education provinces on its Prime Time web page ( Indiana Department of Education, 2010 ) that â€Å" Lowering category size, entirely, will non convey approximately better learning and larning. † Although the really rule of category size is non disputed here, quality direction and pupil battle seem to be emphasized. Undertaking STAR From 1985 to 1989, the Student Teacher Achievement Ratio undertaking ( STAR ) , carried out in Tennessee, was the first statewide randomized category size decrease experiment of the sort, affecting 76 schools, 1,200 instructors and 12,000 K-3 pupils over four old ages. Students were indiscriminately assigned to either a little category ( typically 13 to 17 pupils ) , a regular category ( 22 to 26 pupils ) , or a regular category with a full-time instructional adjutant. Teacher assignments were besides randomized. This constellation continued over the four old ages of the experiment and informations were collected from assorted beginnings including instructor interview, pupil public presentation informations, schoolroom observations, and teacher questionnaires. Students were kept in this constellation from kindergarten for a sum of four old ages, until completion of class 3. The undermentioned twelvemonth, all pupils return to life-size categories. In classs K through 3, the pupils en rolled in little categories systematically performed better than their regular category opposite numbers on standardised trials ( Stanford Achievement Test ) . Effect sizes calculated as the mean mark for little category ( S ) minus the mean mark for regular category ( R ) and teacher-aide category ( A ) constellations [ S- ( R+A ) /2 ] expressed in standard divergence unit after four old ages. All pupils benefited from the smaller categories. Data collected in classs K-3 indicate higher academic accomplishment in little category constellations, with attainment steps runing from +.15 to + .25 standard divergence as compared to larger category constellation public presentation. However, consequence sizes of academic accomplishment were typically two to three times larger for minority pupils than for White pupils ( Finn, 1998 ; Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ) . Follow-up informations were collected in subsequent old ages, from grade 4 to 8, proposing that accomplishment additions were maintained after intervention ( Finn, Pannozzo, & A ; Achilles, 2003 ) . The design of the survey was strengthened by the within-school execution of the three const ellations ( S, R, and A ) which allowed for better control of potentially confusing variables such as school scene ( urban, suburban, rural ) , the socio-economic position of the pupils, per-pupil outgos, and gender of the pupils. All differences were found to the advantage of the little category size surpassing the other two constellations. Gender and school scenes were non found to do important interaction on academic accomplishment. In contrast, Hanushek ( 1999 ) noted that pupil abrasion, transverse taint of control and experimental groups, non-random assignment of instructors ( administrator choice ) , and possible Hawthorne consequence potentially undermined the experimental sturdiness of STAR. Isolating cohorts of pupils who remained in the plan for four old ages ( 48 % of the preschoolers ab initio enrolled ) , Hanushek calculated the public presentation of both control and experimental groups to be much lower. For case, while third-grade pupils in little groups perform 0.22 z-score above the control group, the spread between experimental and control cohorts after four old ages was merely 0.14. Similarly, in mathematics, the spread between annual samples and 4-year cohort for the same class decreased from 0.18 SD to 0.10 SD. The intervention consequence was mitigated by pupil mobility and perchance pupil SES since pupils with lower SES demonstrated higher mobility. Does this means that category size should non be considered? Probably non, the grounds indicates that category size decrease affects pupils otherwise ( Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ) . Answering to Hanushek ‘s claims of added value and limited persisting effects, research workers ( Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ; Nye, Hedges, & A ; Konstantopoulos, 2004 ) pointed out that public policies should aim urban schools with larger poorness pupil populations. In decision, most of the grounds in favour of category size lies in the fact that smaller categories benefit pupils otherwise harmonizing to their fortunes. Based on this grounds, and despite the fact that instruction is non within its competency, the federal authorities ( United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Health Education Labor and Pensions. , 1999 ) actively promoted category size decrease, mentioning STAR has a Prima facie instance in favour of spread outing the little category size construct across the state. Until the terminal of the millenary, the category size argument aggressively divided advocates and oppositions of smaller category sizes as local authoritiess were sing extra outgos with the purpose at cut downing the inequalities that Coleman foremost reported as strongly associated to socio-economic position and races ( 1966 ) . The involvement in category size decrease as a tool to better academic accomplishment culminated in 1998 with the U.S Department of Education and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement commissioned a survey published by Finn ( 1998 ) . This study purported to be an overview of the old two decennaries ( late seventiess to late 1990s ) of research on category size decrease, with the end of supplying grounds to steer and prioritise national educational policies, and clear up inquiries related to academic effects, cost-benefit analysis of little category sizes, deductions for pattern and pupil behaviour. Finn based his statement by including merely robust big graduated table experimental designs, such as STAR. Undertaking Sage At about the same clip, Wisconsin ‘s Student Achievement Guarantee ( SAGE ) was launched as a five-year plan as an intercession aiming SES pupils in primary classs K-3. Initiated in 96-97 school twelvemonth, the plan design included four constituents: ( 1 ) category size decrease to run into a teacher-student ration of 1 to 15 ( including agreements such as two instructors for 30 pupils ) ; ( 2 ) extended school twenty-four hours ; ( 3 ) execution of â€Å" strict † course of study ; and, ( 4 ) staff development combined to a system of professional answerability. 30 schools from 21 school territories run intoing the SES standards of 50 per centum of low SES pupils ( based on free school tiffin engagement ) began the plan. K-1 was targeted the first twelvemonth, and classs two and three were added in subsequent old ages. 14 schools with normal category sizes ( typically 22 to 24 pupils ) in 7 territories take parting in SAGE were deemed comparable based on household incom e, accomplishment in reading, racial make-up, and K-3 registration. These provided for control informations in this quasi-experiment. The purpose of the research workers was to keep schoolroom cohorts integral across the five old ages of the plan. This set up would hold confirmed the determination that lower socioeconomic pupils most benefits from reduced category sizes as compared to other pupils. However, after the first twelvemonth of execution, moving under the force per unit area of parents, consequences within the experimental subgroup were contaminated, demoing no greater additions for pupils with lower SES ( Mosteller, 1995 ) . Anecdotal records by experimental group instructors suggest that pupils demonstrated fewer cases of riotous behaviour, an increased desire to take part, and a more appreciative attitude towards others ( Mosteller, 1995 ) . Teacher farther indicated that possible subject jobs could be handled in a timely mode, and that academic acquisition clip, includ ing reteaching and instructional distinction, could be blended within their lesson bringing. California Class Size Reduction ( CSR ) In 1996, following the successes of Project STAR and SAGE, the California legislative assembly provide schools with over one billion dollars to cut down category size. Unlike these plan, CSR in California was non experimental and affected a astonishing 1.6 million pupils at an jutting cost of 1.5 billion per twelvemonth ( Bohrnstedt & A ; Stecher, 1999 ) , efficaciously cut downing mean student-to-teacher ratios in classs K-3 schoolrooms from 28.6 pupils to no more than 20 pupils per instructor. By 1998-99, school twelvemonth 98.5 % of all eligible Local Education Authorities ( LEA ) had embraced this voluntary plan, serving 92 per centum of K-3 pupils enrolled in California schools ( Bohrnstedt, Stecher, & A ; CSR Research Consortium. , 1999 ) . Some territories, such as Modesto Elementary ( 18,000 ADA ) and other little LEAs did take non to take part as their category sizes were already vibrating around 25 pupils ( Illig, 1997 ) . At the terminal of its first twelvemonth of execution, some 18,400 extra instructors were hired, a figure that would increase a twelvemonth subsequently to 23,500 ( Bohrnstedt & A ; Stecher, 1999 ) . The undermentioned twelvemonth, school twelvemonth 1997-98, the Governor ‘s Budget suggested spread outing CSR to 4th class. The State Legislative Analyst ‘s Office ( Schwartz & A ; Warren, 1997 ) recommended against the enterprise, mentioning several obstructions hindering current and even future attempts of school reform through CSR in California, viz. : a deficit of qualified instructors, and a deficiency of suited installations. The rapid execution across three degrees, from kinder to 3rd class, departed from the theoretical accounts followed in Tennessee ( STAR ) and Wisconsin ( SAGE ) in that California CSR was introduced in three grade degree on the really first twelvemonth of category size decrease, a move that is widely regarded as counterproductive ( Achilles, et al. , 2002 ) . Although the initial per-pupil support of $ 600 was subsequently raised to about $ 800, the CSR plan was badly underfunded from the start as compared to the $ 2,000 per student extra support of undertaking SAGE ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002 ) . California CSR besides presented considerable challenges as compared to STAR. First, whereas Tennessee big categories had been reduced from larger categories of 22-26 pupils down to smaller categories of 13-17, California ‘s overcrowded schoolrooms in the same primary classs averaged 33 pupils prior to CSR. Those pupils were besides much more diverse than their Tennessee opposite nu mbers. Furthermore, unlike California, Tennessee had infinite to suit category retrenchment ( Bohrnstedt, et al. , 1999 ) . For these grounds, CSR in California had unintended effects upon the hapless, the non-English talker, the really pupils it had set up to assist. Overcrowded urban schools providing to take down SES pupils experienced the greatest trouble in pulling qualified instructors and supplying equal installations ( Stecher, Bohrnstedt, Kirst, McRobbie, & A ; Williams, 2001 ) . Case and point: the California Legislative Analyst ‘s Office reported in the first twelvemonth of CSR execution that over 90 per centum of instructors in more flush territory are credential holders versus about 75 per centum in urban, low SES territories ( Schwartz & A ; Warren, 1997 ) . As a consequence, schools serving pupils with minority and low SES profiles were possibly the last 1s to profit from full execution. Contextual Factors Impacting Student Achievement ( TO BE CONTINUED )

Is Britain a Class-Ridden Society Essay

Social classes can be defined by a group of persons sharing a similar social position and certain economic, political, and cultural characteristics. A class-ridden society is a term used by sociologists to describe a society which is ruled by social classes. As for the British society, it is considered as a division in three main classes : the upper class, the middle class and the lower or working class. Therefore, in the past few decades, the economy has changed and so has Britain. Then, can we consider Britain as a class-ridden society? Historically, in Britain, everything was depending on the class we were into. According to our language, our accent, the education we received from our family, our interests, etc, we were placed in a particular social class. Then, things like relationships, jobs, occupations varied from the class we were into. This phenomenon has existed in every country but it was more or less the same as in Britain. The novelist George Orwell said that this country was â€Å"the most class-ridden country under the sun†. Indeed, unlike France, Britain was still governed by the aristocracy in the 19th. The wealthy ones were the elite and didn’t leave much place for other classes. Although the aristocratic power had declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, the distinction between social classes is still in everyone’s mind. Even if the social classes and especially the differences between them have existed for a long time now, new classes have emerged time after time. For instance, with the Industrial Revolution, the term â€Å"working class† has appeared as well as the term â€Å"middle-class†. Nowadays, things have changed. With the economic globalization, the immigration and the development of multiculturalism we have learned how to live with each other, whatever the background, the education and the social status. So the real question would be : has Britain evolved or has it remained the same class-ridden society? To conclude, that question cannot be answered because Britain being a class-ridden society is in the British culture though there has been an evolution in everyone’s mind about that concept.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Fayols Concept Management Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Fayols Concept Management Essay Henri Fayol is widely acknowledged as the earliest pioneer and advocate of the task of management Parker and Ritson, 2005 His management theories were first proposed in the early 1900s. Despite many criticisms, Fayol’s theories still form the basis of management practices and teachings in the 21st century. Taking some articles for reference, this essay will mainly analyse the advantages and disadvantages of Fayol’s concept of five functions of management in modern enterprises by some examples. There are about three main parts in this essay beginning with the introduction. And in the main body of this article, based on some academic researches, there are about seven parts discussing the advantages and disadvantages of Fayol’s concept of five functions of management. A conclusion will be made at last. There is no doubt that Fayol is best known for a three-fold contribution to management theory. Among his contributions, the concept of five functions of management i s worth discussing all the time. Fayol identified five key functions of management and these functions of managerial activity are: forecasting and planning, organizing, coordination, command and control. According to Fayol, forecasting involves analyzing the future and drawing a plan of action (Pugh ad Hichson, 2007). And as for organizing, Fayol believed that an organization’s structure was important, as it can facilitate the optimum conduct of its business activities (Pugh and Hichson, 2007). According to Pugh and Hichson (2007), in his original writing, Fayol used the term â€Å"command† to illustrate a manager’s responsibility to lead and direct employees towards the achievement of organizational goals and strategies. About the function of coordination, Fayol made a suggestion that managers should bind together, unify and harmonize all the organization’s activities and efforts. In contemporary management practice, this can be explained into that the m anagers should be responsible for making sure that all the organizational business activities are coordinated to make the employees can unify together within one department or among different departments. The last not the least function of management is control. Fayol recognized the importance of control within an organization and support that it ensures â€Å"everything occurs in conformity with established rules and expressed command†. In the article of â€Å"Fayol-standing the test of time†, McLean (2011) firstly introduced the contents of the five functions of management and stated that in contemporary society, there are some advantages of these functions to development of the enterprises. First, McLean (2011) stated that with the development of globalized knowledge economy, the abilities of forecasting and planning can gain success in the competition. Second, organizing can ask the managers to carry out an appropriate infrastructure, which will optimize the organi zation’s system, resources, procedures, processes and services and enable knowledge to be disseminated to those who need it, when they need it. Third, McLean (2011) also stated that control is one of the most important responsibilities of a manager and under the control of the managers. Under control of the managers, the policies and strategies can be implemented according to plan and within budget, set timescales and allocated resources. Fourth, under the function of command, the managers can develop a thorough knowledge of their employees, which can generate a positive psychological contract that engages employees with their jobs and the organization. What’s more, Fayol’s managerial functions are frequently cited as the inspiration for the contemporary practice of dividing managerial activity (and management textbooks) into the functions of planning, leading, organizing and controlling (Davidson and Griffin, 2000; Lewis, Goodmand and Fandt ,1995).

Economic Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Economic Development - Essay Example 10). For a country to be termed as developed economically, and then there are conditions that need to be absent. A country must, therefore, focus on poverty reduction and improving on the life expectancy of its citizens. Attaining public health is essentially another goal of economic development. The goals of economic development have changed over time. Due to globalization, nations have resulted to aiming at remaining at the top of the food chain. Competition has forced economic development to turn to a struggle to retain businesses (Cypher and James, pg. 32). Most people living in low-income countries, also known as developing worlds’ live under the poverty line. There are some reasons why this poverty is widespread and, unfortunately, why these people continue in that vicious cycle. To begin with, most developing countries depend on agriculture as their main economic activity. There is nothing wrong with agriculture, but, when there are no machines and no skilled labor in farms, the total output in these farms is significantly low. This means that there is barely any surplus that can be sold, and the farmers are subsistent farmers (Cypher and James, pg. 7). One goal of economic development is to ensure that public health is maintained at the highest level possible. Looking at most low-income nations, we realize that they not only have fewer skills in terms of combating diseases, but less economic power to promote infant and maternal health. This, in other words, means that their life expectancy is very low. Consider a country such as Tanzania with an average life expectancy of 48 years while countries such as Sweden in Europe have average life expectancy of over 85 years (Cypher and James, pg.

The Role of Media in Portraying Islam as a Religion of Violence Research Paper

The Role of Media in Portraying Islam as a Religion of Violence - Research Paper Example Mass media has made a significant contribution in shaping wars, conflicts and resolutions, but it has failed in reflecting objectivity since having been criticized that it has biases towards political agenda of the western world concerning the developed world. However, the media coverage and publication concerning Islam and Muslim have been challenged by issues of accuracy and vilification of information. Scholars, media commentators and experts have been politicized after the incidence in 9/11, and this has led to the creation of a minefield for policymakers and the public, who are seeking to understand the cause of radicalism and Anti-Americanism. In fact, their convictions that establish a direct relationship between global communication and terrorism. Therefore, terrorism has been considered an indirect psychological strategy used for the avoidance of direct contact with opponents, thus if there would be no media coverage, issues about terrorism would disappear. In this case, med ia were the reason behind Muslim and Terrorist becoming synonymous; hence, after the events such as 9/11, the experts and activists in the field of human rights issued a warning against the rise of Islamophobia and racism against Muslims. References can be established from the role of media after the cold war, and the rise of the new global threat concerning Islamic terrorist, since after the attacks and the rise of religious militancy, Islam has been the target of the scrutiny. In fact, this has been facilitated by the deception of media concerning Islam as a representation of hostility.

LT-week4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

LT-week4 - Essay Example shiers to access all point-of-sale, all managers to access all management resources, and resources accessed by human resources, marketing and accounting and must be restricted to department members and Executive Management or owner), distribution of Domain Controllers (DCs) and Global Catalog Domain Controllers (GC/DCs), replication strategy to include possible use of Read-Only Domain Controllers (RODCs) (locations outside California to have one location with fast connection networked through slower connections. Other locations in California need fast connections). Minimum memory should be 512MB RAM but I recommend a 2GB RAM or greater. The maximum memory for 32-bit systems should be 4GB which is the standard or 64GB for Enterprise and Datacenter. Since the organization is an enterprise, a datacenter and has Itanium-Based systems, I recommend a 2TB. Disk Space: The minimum available disk space should be 10GB but 40GB or greater could serve better. Since the organization processes and transactions are enormous, more space is required to houseany paging, and dump files. The new Windows 2008 R2 offers new ways of improving data security tailored for remote offices for the organization especially when physical security is not efficient. Active Directory Domain Services has a new feature integrated called Read-Only Domain Controller (RODC). The RODC need to be configured because it does not store any users or account credentials. This makes Read-Only Domain Controllers effective in remote branch offices of the organization. DNS server role should be installed on each Read-Only Domain Controllers, allowing clients to perform DNS resolution in case they are lacking connectivity on the DC. There are two access control decision engine and need to be handled independently. The two access engines are local access and subject access. The local access control engine makes decisions depending on the Web service access rules while the subject access control engine

Gender & Migration from a Rural Caribbean Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gender & Migration from a Rural Caribbean - Essay Example In this process of migration of human beings caused the increase of infections and nutritional diseases. The measures taken to improve the public health system by supply-improved nutrition's food items and medicine, some people in the developed nations had undergone a second epidemiological transition. In this transition period, there was an element of deceivers in infections diseases whereas degenerating conditions prevailed in the increase of non-infections diseases and chronic diseases. Â  At present, with more use of antibiotics, the people are facing a third epidemiological transition which is nothing best a new birth of infectious diseases, pathogens which have antibiotic-resistance. These pathogens potential of being transmitted globally on a large scale. Â  In a Paleolithic period, human beings dwelt in small, and sparsely settled groups. The size of the population and density was low during the Paleolithic period. The population size had been balanced as the births and deaths rates in small. Â  A dramatic change of increase in the size of the population and density occurred after Neolithic revolution. ... Â  There were associations of gender kinship with reproduction in rural Dominica. Â  As groups of kinship become larger and competition from locals increase leads to lessening the benefits to kinship. In Bwa Mawego, the reproductive success increased to an optimal mix of the group where it starts to decline. Men's migration was influenced by access to matrilineal inherited properties for commercial and agriculture. For this reason, the young adults delayed their reproduction till they have acquired adequate resources for their children in Bwa Mawego. Â  The youth complain that they would go for migration as a few jobs and educational facilities were available in Dominica. Further, to add, people in Bwa Mawego were willing for migration, as the young women had not prepared to become life partners with jobless youth. The men were ready to get married only after sound financial position. Migration is one of the means for improvement of reproduction chances. Â  Bwa Mawego is one of the least developed rural villages in Dominica. She is an island situated at the dead end of narrow, mountainous road. There are about 700 residents. The source of income for many families is cash crops. The economic activities are very limited to commercial agriculture and fishing.

Compare and Contrast the Ethic of Care and the Ethic of Justice Term Paper

Compare and Contrast the Ethic of Care and the Ethic of Justice - Term Paper Example One simple thing associated with ethics of care is relationship. A person is considered to be a moral agent who has the capacity to love, show mercy, affection and more. In other words, the moral identity of a person is based on his ability to feel about his environment and be sensitive to the needs of others as part of the idea of what is morally right or wrong. In other words, an individual tries to adapt to its environment because of his capacity to feel and create relationship. Ethics of care is considered as virtue ethics. In other words, ethics of care values emotional involvement in dealing with the lives of others (Lauritzen, 2002). The point of ethics of care is to preserve or nurture relations in series of relationships and attend and respond to the needs of others (Gilligan, 1993). A very definite example of ethics of care is a deep compassion and willingness to support young women who were experiencing unwanted pregnancies and social condemnation (Allvin et al., 2007). Et hics of justice defined Individual autonomous choice and equality are what the ethics of justice primarily considers (French & Weis, 2000). As pointed out by French and Weis justice is a product of a certain culture. This means that human belief, experience and more are integral parts of the moral justice. The disapproval of adolescent pre-marital sexual relations and abortion is a clear indication of the existence of ethics of justice (Allvin et al., 2007). Ethics of justice is centered on the issue of morality and self. Under the ethics of justice, there is a strong consideration of rights, rational conclusion, differentiating morality from law, definition of self via autonomy and personal confidence, restraining certain actions because of others’ needs, transposing a hierarchy of power into a hierarchy of values, and placing of problem into an impersonal conflict of claims (Gilligan, 1993). In other words, ethics of justice is still product of the human experience, but the re is a remarkable impact or influence of the issue of morality and philosophy in it. Care builds up self-esteem There are different needs of the humanity. Some people are hopeless. Some suffered this way due to some personal circumstances or reasons outside of their control. For instance, children who were victims of violence, physical or mental abuse needs primary care and attention. These individuals are hopeless and at some point innocent about how the world is turning against them. In this case, they need more care rather than providing them the justice they deserved. The reason is that the impact of violence may be harmful than trying to find justice for them. It is through effective care they would feel they are loved and their notion about the harsh environment may be changed. Thus, giving care is a way to change an individual’s perspective about life. In other words, the ethics of care is an integral part of someone’s ability to stand in the midst of trials an d hardships in life. This is just one of the simple illustrations why care is necessary for everyone. However, placing this at the point of view of clinical practice, care is an essential part of the patients’ need for survival or recovery. According to a certain study, a patient-centered service is associated with the delivery of care (O’Connell & Landers, 2008). It is further emphasized in the said study that patients and their relatives are looking forward to

Money traps in U.S. Healthcare Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Money traps in U.S. Healthcare - Article Example probable causes for this are a combination of singular attributes of the US system such as higher administrative costs, higher pay for executives in the industry, demand for higher profits by insurance companies and high prevalence of fragmented and uncoordinated care within the industry. The second article ‘A Sharper Mind, Middle Age and Beyond’ argues that whereas some form of human intelligence – fluid intelligence – declines in age, another form - crystallized intelligence – actually increases. The article neither out rightly dispels nor supports the argument that brainpower, creativity and innovation have an early expiration date. According to Cohen (2012) a large research that she refers to as the Manhattan Project of middle age has uncovered several new observations on fluid intelligence and aging. Whereas it was typically assumed that fluid intelligence reduces with age, from the result gathered so far from the ‘Midlife in the United States’ study, it has been seen that continued education does increase the longevity of this form of intelligence among senior citizens. When we look at the two articles critically we identify that both seek to dispel commonly held beliefs. On the one hand, Boffey (2012) disapproves the notion that American healthcare system is more costly than other advanced nations because it is better. American healthcare is excellent in some areas, average in others and poor in other areas as well. On the other hand, Cohen (2012) uses the results of the continuing ‘Midlife in the United States’ study to disapprove the late Sir William Osler’s assertion that brainpower, creativity and innovation have an early expiration date. Both authors provide sufficient examples and arguments within the articles to, at the very least, through these commonly held notions into doubt. The difference between the articles emanates from how each other concludes their arguments. Boffey (2012) does not provide a clear answer at

Art of Darkness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Art of Darkness - Essay Example rop Frye discusses it in his essay, refers simply to a special kind of narrative.1 The special nature of this narrative is that it is devised to reflect the beliefs of a particular culture, especially as it uses the concept of the supernatural to explore and explain natural events and the essence of human nature. Frye’s argument is that this mythic narrative is included in almost all of the archetypes used in literature and that these concepts are also found within our most sacred ritual events as we continue to seek the true nature of the order of life. Considering Frye’s discussion of myth, ritual and the natural cycle as it is presented in The Archetypes of Literature, it can be seen that there are several rituals and beliefs that we experience in modern life that we are perhaps not even aware of as being a voluntary affirmation of the natural order of life, such as the beliefs we associate with the concept of darkness. An examination into the traditional values asso ciated with darkness helps to inform the shift in focus seen as the world began to shift into its more modern configuration. Generally acknowledged to have started with the publication of Horace Walpole’s novel The Castle of Otranto in 1764, the Gothic genre represents a fundamental shift in thinking from one dominated by ideals and reason to one of imagination and emotion.2 Gothic literature is characterized by its unique way of combining horror and romance to create a completely new genre that, particularly after the advent of Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalytic theory,3 focused more and more on the power of the mind to terrify itself. Common elements found within Gothic literature include terror, the supernatural, ghosts, haunted houses with a particular type of architecture, castles, darkness, death, madness, secrets and hereditary curses. Characters typically fall into stereotypical personas such as the femmes fatales, flawed heroes, monsters of various types and flawed individuals.

Form and Structure Essay Example for Free

Form and Structure Essay `A Taste of Honey is in two acts, both containing two scenes, and set in two flats. The play could be described as episodic, due to the fact that within the same situation by using a blackout, the play has moved on months from the previous scene (i.e. Jos pregnancy in Act II). Delaney has used a Brechtian device with using episodes to show different aspects of the characters lives, and how they fit together in the plot. The structure of the play is fairly basic as it follows the Brechtian influence of a Linear plot(beginning, middle, end) i. e. the play is easy to follow which symbolises the characters lives monotonous and basically the same situations arising from one day to the next. However, a element of Stanislavski is used as the technique of naturalistic/realistic drama (soap opera effect) is apparent. `A Taste of Honey follows the life of a young girl call Jo over the period of approximately 12 18 months. It is realistic in the sense that it portrays how working class people live and the struggles they have to endure, which would therefore allow the audience to relate to this and affect them emotionally. This relates to Stanislavskis aim of wanting to depict the working class and show the rich and privileged how they live (realities of society). This idea is also indicated throughout the outcome of the play the initial characters in the play Helen and Jo end up as they begun, rejected and the relationships they developed throughout the play have failed( Peter has gone off with another woman, Jimmie left Jo pregnant and does not come back to see her, and Geof leaves Jo). There is only Jo and Helen left, and Helen portrays selfishness and illustrates dislike towards her daughter, as shown on the final page( 86), which was the case in the opening of the play. This situation of the characters not progressing in their lives symbolises the genre of the play as they have no hope for the future because of the lives they lead. Due to their lack of education, morals and the general way they conduct their lives, (e.g. Jo dating a coloured man) they are outcasts of society. However, due to their working class status in the 1950s, they wouldnt be given the chance. Therefore, I feel the that Brechtian idea of current political factors playing a part in this play when written, is illustrated by the characters lives due to their working class status, the feminist issue of two of the male characters(Jimmie and Peter) only after Helen and Jo for sex, and the racism and discrimination towards coloured people. Stanislavski uses methods of traditional, realistic drama such as method acting, where the actor becomes emotionally involved with their character to gain a deeper understanding. Delaney intended on using this idea, as in the early rehearsals for the play, improvisation lessons were used. Avis Bunnage, who played Helen in a `Taste of Honey described this experience as an actor: When we came to bits that didnt seem to work, we ad-libbed around the ideas, made it up as we went along. We used things that were around like an aspidistra that someone had left on the stage which became incorporated in the production. I said some of my lines to it. Jean gave us hell during the rehearsals. She had us running from the stage to the paint bay and back over and even again, to give us feeling of real tiredness Example of method acting used in rehearsals for the play I would describe the genre of this play as kitchen sink as it has certain characteristics such as being set in a working class environment (Salford, Manchester in a flat). It deals with domestic issues such as conflicts between people who live in these poor conditions (e.g. Jo and Helen). The language even insinuates this genre of theatre, as it is simplistic and could be described as ordinary, everyday language, which is sometimes crude. An example of this is in Act II, scene I, where Helen and Peter have come to see Jo: Helen: Take your bloody money and get out Peter: Thank you Helen: You dirty bastard (Act II, scene 1, page 66 ) Another example of the language reflecting the genre of the play is Helens description of the flat: Theres a lovely view of the gas works. We share a bathroom with the community (Act 1, scene 1, page 7) Another element of this drama is the conflicts which arise due to the conditions in which the characters live (Jo and Helen). Helen kicks Geof out/makes him leave without Jo knowing about this, and she knows Jo wants him there. Another example is Helen arguing with Peter for touching her. Peter ( touching her) Now you know I like this mother and son relationship Helen: Stop it Peter: Arent you wearing your girdle? (Act 1, scene1, page 18) Helen argues with Peter about this because really she likes him touching her. This relates to Jo s situation as she doesnt want `boy (Jimmie) to touch her, due to the fact that she enjoys it too. This dismissal of affection is due to both the female characters not being really used to affection, as their relationship as mother and daughter certainly doesnt entail this behavior. Therefore, the characters dont know how to conduct themselves in a loving relationship, and are unaware of how to respond to affection, care and attention. The hostile relationship between Jo and Helen is established due to the many arguments they have, for example, when Jo tells Helen shes getting married, Helen is angry. Jo: My boyfriend, he asked me to marry him Helen: Well, you silly bitch. I could choke you (Act 1, scene II) The domestic relationship is between Helen and Peter (mother and boyfriend). For example, when Peter finds out that Helen has a daughter he states: That puts another 10 years on her (Act 1, scene 1) This portrays Peters attitude towards Helen, as he talks about her here in a rather disparaging tone as he knows Helen always tries to act and look younger than she actually is. This idea of making fun of characters is displayed again in Act II, scene 1, when Peter finds out Jo is pregnant: Peter (singing): Whos got a bun in the oven? Whos got a cake in the stove? Within the play the Brechtian device of including music is used, as there is many musical interludes which represent the beginning or mark the ending of a scene. For example, in Act 1, scene II the boy (Jimmie) exits whilst singing to the audience. This music within the play seems to be a contrast to the harshness and reality of it i.e. the characters are portraying happiness or humour when singing. However, even at times with the singing there is comic sarcasm intended. For example; when Peter finds out Jo is pregnant, he sings: Whos got a bun in the oven? Whos got a cake in the stove? This idea of music being an important factor in the play is indicated in Act 1, scene 1, when Helen is reminiscing about her experience of working in a pub, and she starts to sing a song she use to apparently perform, at which she asks the orchestra to join in and play the piece. The fact that the script indicates that there is an orchestra in the play gives us the impression that Delaney intended to make music a definite aspect of the play. Singing is also a element frequently used in the play, as Helen performs a old song she used to sing in the pub, Peter portrays his sarcasm by singing many statements, i.e. Walter, Walter, take me to the alter!. We also see boy (Jimmie) in Act 1, scene 2 (page 26) singing to the audience as he exits. This Brechtian device portrays the characters mood and temperament at the time, which also adds to the overall atmosphere. Another example of this is when Jo is reminicing about Jimmie in Act two, scene one(page 53) which indicates to the audience th at she still thinks about him and how she regards him as a liar. Another Stanislavski device used is sub-text. For example; is Act 1, scene 1, when Jo has gone to make coffee, Helen talks about her daughter to the audience: I suppose Id better clear some of this stuff away. She wouldnt think. Well they dont at their age, do they. Oh! it gets me right here when I try and do anything when I bend you know. Have you ever had it? This device allows us (the audience) to witness Helens personality and how self-obsessed she is, moaning about her cold and generally ordering Jo around. There is no real silences in the play, due to the fact that this portrays the monotony of their lives, always doing something, moving from one place to another, arguing, fighting, different relationships etc. The relationships throughout the play are fuelled by anger, where every couple seem to have disputes which lead to rash decision making, with no real thought of the consequences, i.e, boy asking Jo to marry him, Geof kissing Jo due to confusion etc. Therefore, the suspense is built up by the language, how the tempo of the dialogue speeds up as arguments take place, and the questions raised by the characters. For example, Jo inquires about her father and Helen divulges to her that he wasnt exactly normal. This leads the audience into thinking what actually was wrong with him and how will it effect Jo in later life? This device links to Stanislavskis idea of realism and how, for example, Helen is ashamed to admit firstly being adulterous and how this changed her life,(turned into a whore) and that she slept with the apparent village idiot, which in the 1950s would have been the gossip of everybody (fits in with the era). An element within the play which has had the influence of Brecht is the idea of Forum theatre. Brecht liked the audience to be involved in the play and in A Taste of Honey, Delaney has tried to incorporate an aspect of this by having the some of the characters speaking and interacting with the audience. For example, Helen addressed the audience frequently in Act one, scene One: She cant do anything for herself, that girl. (page 10) Another example is Jo on page 7: You packed em. Shed lose her head if it was loose. This device allows the audience to actually get feel a of what the atmosphere is actually like for the characters, and therefore this incorporates Stanislavinskis idea of wanting the audience to be able to react emotionally to the play.

GM Food Essay Example for Free

GM Food Essay You are required to write an article titled GM Food on the basis of websites and sofewares. In the article, you are expected to present the points as follows: the definition of GM food, the possible prospects and problems, your attitude towards GM food. The article should be no less than 500 words. Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from genetically modified organisms. Genetically modified organisms have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering, using a process of either Cisgenesis or Transgenesis. GM foods were first put on the market in the early 1990s. Typically, genetically modified foods are transgenic plant products: soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. Last year, the Ministry of Agriculture awarded the safety cerfiticate to two kinds of transgenic rice, and this triggered a large-scale discussion. Many people oppose it and refuse to eat GM foods. They objected to GM foods on several grounds such as: †¢ GMF’s have not been a success, there is no test in human being. The GM foods maybe change human gene in future. †¢ Genetically modified crops will affect other plants around them and change other species, then more and more species will vary or disappear. †¢ GM foods have the advantage in both price and output, so traditional farmers will lose the market. Then few companies who have transgene proprietary technology will control food market. On the contrary, many proponents of GM foods have other opinions: †¢ People eat GM foods, then the foods are analysed and assimilated like normal foods, there is no theory to support that GM foods will change human being’s gene. †¢ There is a food supply issue in the developing world, in order to meeting the demand for food and confronting the climate change we need to increase use of GM crops. †¢ The GM crops use less pesticide, It is more safty than normal crops. Actually, more and more GM foods appear in our lives. When you have dinner in the restaurant, maybe you eat the GM oil, GM corn and GM rice, but you just don’t know. Genetically modified food is science brings us the product, now of cultivated land area of less, genetically modified food will play more and more important role, if the use of transgenic technology can solve the world food shortage problem, it is not quite good? Genetically modified food in the world now is a kind of new things, new things, people need time to promote its accept also need some time, we cannot put new things in the cradle, a stick to it from the beginning, that cannot be eaten of genetically modified food. You think we dont of hybrid rice is a genetically modified food? But we can open it from? And if they can pass the soybeans genetically modified technique using atmospheric nitrogen inside his produces fertilizers to other crops gene transfer in the mankind, it is. Everything is both sides, especially technology, science and technology is a double-edged sword? Genetically modified food has its disadvantages, like some worry, because it will not change, will destroy genetic evolution, etc. Genetically modified food and nutrition inside it isnt like that, the propaganda of people worry is understandable, after accepting a new things take time. But we also should see the benefits of them, I think as time slowly past, genetically modified foods will be accepted by people.

Reflective Essay on Teamwork

Reflective Essay on Teamwork This essay will critically reflect on the process of teamwork, change management and leadership; all issues pertinent to the role of the SCPHN. Barr and Dowding (2008) assert the necessity for leaders to critically reflect effectively, in order to raise their awareness and effect change where needed. Densten and Gray (2001) support this view, adding that leadership development depends on active reflection. A peer learning group (PLG) of five was formed; their goal to identify an area for change within their practice, justified by available evidence, and to formulate a plan of implementation. Our group was a mix of School Health and District Nurse SCPHN students, which made it more difficult to identify a common change initiative. However, our group overcame this obstacle and identified low staff morale in the workplace as an area to consider for change. A literature search revealed this to be a feasible initiative. The work of the PLG was to be delivered to an audience of peers through a presentation. We aptly named our team The Motivators. Sullivan Garland (2010) distinguish groups from teams and discuss the concept of how groups are transformed into teams, and the necessity for a thorough understanding of this process for effective team leadership and management. Morhman et al (1995) define a team as a group of individuals working together to produce a product or service for which they are all mutually accountable. They have a shared goal and are interdependent in its accomplishment, their interactions producing the collective result. It is argued that groups differ in that they perform their tasks independently of each other and sometimes also competitively (Sullivan Garland, 2010). It has been proffered that working in small teams is conducive to effective learning and involves collaboration and co-operation (Will, 1997). Conversely, Topping (2005) adopts a cynical stance by implying that the application of peer learning strategies by educational establishments is simply gathering together a group of individuals and hoping for the best. Co-operative learning is said to reinforce learning amongst group members through discussion and peer review, while collaborative learning is socially constructed knowledge assuming the negotiation of the individuals different perspectives (Will, 1997). In order to achieve a goal it is essential that teams work cooperatively (Sullivan Garland, 2010). Further, Clements et al (1997) cite collaboration as the foundation of a healthy team and together with effective communication is key to producing high quality results. Parker (2008) suggests that working collaboratively requires a clear objective and a consensus of opinion when d ecision making; DFES (2004) reiterate the aspect of shared responsibility in collaborative working. My own PLG worked both collaboratively and co-operatively, facilitated and evidenced by: a readiness to assume roles within the team, maintaining communication links, regular meetings and the sharing of information resources and ideas. The perspective offered by Slavin (1996) is that of social cohesion; peers helping each other because they want each to succeed. This idea is applicable to my PLG as our presentation was assessed as a joint effort. Sullivan Garland (2010) maintain that strong group cohesiveness fosters greater personal support and cooperation amongst the group, which again was evident in our group. However, Slavin (1996) acknowledges the constraints of learning in this manner as each team member has limited time/exposure to the other members learning topic. Because our group had different timetables we experienced difficulties meeting up, however we overcame this by maintaining contact via e mail. Oliver (2006) acknowledges the complications that can arise in team-wor k and Eisenhardt (1997) stresses the need for stability when aspiring to produce optimum performance. Tuckman, (1965) offered a model comprising four stages, advocating this as the ideal group- decision making process. Adair (2004) purports it to be a problem solving toolkit. Forming: this did not present us with a problem as we all knew each other. From forming as a group we evolved quickly into: Storming: this stage enabled the team to grow. We identified an area for change, which was limited by our mixed professional group, and planned our immediate work schedule. We completed a SWOT analysis to identify the strengths and weaknesses we envisaged in implementing the change. No one was immediately willing to take on the mantle of leader so we unanimously elected the person who had initially proposed the change initiative. We exchanged contact details, agreed a time plan and arranged our next meeting. Norming: is said to occur when the team has developed trust and are working toward a common goal (Adair, 2004). At this time it is likely that some members will forgo their own ideas in order to progress the team function. In this stage all members assume responsibility for the success of the team goal. I was fortunate to belong to a group that worked well together and were well motivated. Due to this degree of co operation we passed through to the final phase quickly: Performing: At this stage we worked cooperatively on delegated tasks maintaining contact frequently between meetings. We offered each other support and encouragement throughout the process and our team leader encouraged contact and mutual support. Action learning (AL) has been defined as a continual process of learning and reflection which is supported by colleagues with the ultimate aim of accomplishing a goal (McGill Beaty, 2001). It has a bottom up approach and is said to promote innovation rather than simply change (Pryjmachuk, 1996). In essence this is what our group did; by coming together to focus on the issues of individual group members and reflecting on them, the group were enabled to proceed with their planned action. Pedlar (2008) describes AL as an approach to problem solving whereby individuals are enabled to develop and form relationships that contrive to enhance the change process. The relationship between research and innovation was highlighted by Lord Darzi (2007). Most organisations are concerned with effective team working and it is accepted that factors affecting team performance are multi-faceted (McGill Beaty, 2001). Empirical studies suggest the validity of Belbins Self -Perception Inventory (SPI) (Aritzeta et al, 2005). Belbin (1981) developed the SPI to identify the behavioural characteristics of individuals within a team, thus enabling the creation of effectively functioning teams through a creative and appropriate mix (Broucek Randell, 1996). An Observers Assessment (OA) which was later introduced has further increased validity (Belbin, 1994). . Although the tool has received criticism (Furnham et al, 1993), Belbins defence was that the tool was not intended as a psychometric instrument (Belbin, 1993b). Our group used a version of the tool (Foundation of Nursing Leadership, 2011) as a learning experience to identify our roles within the team. I emerged as Supporter and Questioner in equal measure closely followed by Finisher (Append ix ). In Belbins SPI this would equate to Team worker, Monitor Evaluator and Completer-Finisher. A supporter of Belbin theory suggests that greater control is achieved through the ability to forecast team attitudes (Fisher et al, 2000). I was surprised at how accurate this was for myself although I would not entirely agree. Although we didnt use the SPI to assess the characteristics of our team prior to beginning the project, it was an interesting and informative task to undertake. It happened that we had a mix of characteristics within our team which perhaps accounted for our collaborative cooperation. However, it has been argued that Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Model favours the management of organisational dynamics as it maintains motivation through the desire to achieve (Burnes, 2004). The current re-design of the health service requires a willingness and ability to adapt to change (Institute for Innovation and Improvement, 2011). Efforts to contrive change are unanimously said to be fraught with challenges (Parkin, 1997; MacFarlane et al, 2002), although McWilliam and Ward-Griffin, 2006; Darzi, 2007) argue that healthcare workers have both the mandate and the potential to lead and effect change initiatives. One of the major challenges to change is seen as resistance, which is said to have both positive and negative effects and to be expected by managers implementing change (Sullivan Garland, 2010). Waddell and Sohal (1998) insist that resistance to change should be utilised and viewed as evaluative material to reassess the proposed change. Pederit (2000) found resistance to reveal valid concerns about proposed change worthy of reconsideration. Bovey and Hede (2001) argue that resisting change is a natural human behaviour and unavoidable. Fisher Savage (1999) identify through Personal Construct Theory, a model of personal change The Transition Curve (Appendix ), which identifies a process individuals may go through in the transition period of change. Similarly, the stages of grief identified by KÃ ¼bler Ross (1969) (Appendix ) are also applied to the process of change, although Connor (1998) adapted the sequence in his Cycle of Negative Response as he argued the emotions involved in change are less intense. Change is recognised as unsettling so it is logical that the change agent be a settling influence. A theory Y style of management is thought to aid change through its liberating and developmental aspects; McGregor espoused the theory that control, achievement and improvement are accomplished through enabling, empowering and giving responsibility (Appendix ). There appears to be a lack of distinction between resistance and conflict in some of the literature (Parkin, 2009). Parkin differentiates the two by stating the more aggressive and emotional nature of conflict. Our PLG was fortunate in not encountering any conflict at all; DiPaola and Hoy (2001) suggest that large, diverse groups have a greater potential for conflict through the wider differences in objectives and perspectives. As our group was small with common interests and goals, areas for conflict should be minimal. Chuang et al (2004) supports this when arguing that the shared values of nurses promotes greater tolerance and respect, although it has been said that as a group, nurses are apt to avoid conflict to the detriment of effective change implementation (Valentine, 2001). However, Anderson (2005) argues the limitless potential for conflict amongst any group, small or large. Historically, conflict has been viewed as having a negative impact due to the tensions it creates (Medina et al, 2005) but it has also been asserted that conflict can also benefit team performance (Jehn, 1995). McAdam (2005) suggests that conflict can be both constructive, leading to innovative results or destructive, which hinders innovation. It therefore follows that conflict is better managed rather than resolved. Bruce and Wyman (1998) suggest conflict can be channelled by good management into creativity and positive outcomes. It is important that learning opportunities are not missed through avoiding conflict (Fagan, 1985). Working through conflict can create enhanced understanding, increased motivation and lead to more effective working (Sullivan and Garland, 2010). Crawley and Graham (2002) describe the benefits of healthy conflict as culminating in providing a driver for change. Nicholson (2011) asserts that leaders can create conditions to either hinder or aid innovation and Bruhn (2004) reiterates this when arguing that leaders set the limits of success by how they manage change. Innovation is currently the popular term within healthcare organisations, implying change with a positive thrust (Parkin, 2009), Pryjmachuk (1996) also supports this reasoning when stating that innovations are seen as welcome, while change is not. Reid (2009) stated the legal obligation on Strategic Health Authorities to promote innovation. Conversely, research suggests change in whatever form remains unpopular, causing stress and conflict (Stewart ODonnell, 2007). The literature abounds with a multiplicity of change strategies ranging from the dictatorial approach of controlling to those which embrace the involving paradigm (Dunphy and Bryant, 1996: 692). The Motivators identified Lewins ( 1951) three step approach to change management as an appropriate model to manage the identified change. The model has been dismissed as outdated and simplistic (Dawson, 1994), but according to Burnes (2004) criticism is based on a narrow interpretation of the model. The model should be viewed alongside the other elements of the planned approach: Field Theory; Group Dynamics and Action Research, which combine to create a robust model (Burnes, 2004b; Darwin et al, 2002) and involves: Unfreezing: is said to refer to reducing the behaviours that maintain the present situation and recognition of the need for change to effect improvement (Goppee Galloway, 2009). Good communication is a vital element at this stage; good practice would ensure those likely to be affected by the change agree, or at least are cognisant of the need for change (Kotter and Cohen, 2002; Curtis and White, 2002). Involving people in all aspects of the planning and implementation of the change discourages resistance (Curtis and White, 2002). A Gantt chart was developed as a tool to provide a timeframe/schedule for implementing and evaluating the proposed change as advocated by Borril et al (2001) (Appendix ). Moving: The Gantt chart would provide a framework for revision and review of the change. It would be advisable to check that all those involved with the change are clear and informed about the change and that all other professionals involved are fully aware (Goppee and Galloway, 2009). Refreezing: refers to the stage when the change has been accepted both emotionally and intellectually by colleagues. The change should be stabilised and reinforced through mechanisms of support such as policy and resources, as appropriate (Goppee and Galloway, 2009). Evaluation of the change is essential; evidence dictates that successful, well performing teams are characterised by the use of measurement in supporting improvement (Darzi, 2008). The use of measurement, benchmarking, and audit are recommended as a means of guiding local improvement and innovation (NHS, 2008., Care Quality Commission, 2009,. DH, 2008). Pre and post change data collection is also considered a valuable means of evaluating a change (DH, 2009; Cooper and Benjamin, 2004). For change to actually happen requires effective leadership (Darzi, 2009). As SCPHNs, cultivation of leadership skills is deemed essential to effecting change; NHS (2011) assert that leadership capacity and capability can be cultivated and is a core expectation of practicing professionals (Darzi, 2009). Hogan et al (1994) would refute this, stating the trait theory of leadership whereby people are born leaders with inherent leadership characteristics which cannot be learned. Borrill and West (2001) identify leadership as critical in developing effective team working and should maximise the benefits and minimise the weaknesses within the team. Transactional leadership has been commonly used in healthcare (Curtin, 2001), mainly as it lends itself to achieving targets. It is equated by some as being managerial in its style (Finkleman, 2006) with the focus being task and organisation orientated, with sparse attention to the needs of the followers. Conversely, transformational leadership is said to be universally applicable (Bass et al, 1987) inspiring followers to disregard their personal interests for the good of the group or organisation. We identified the transformational approach as the most appropriate one for both our team and in leading the change in the workplace, as this visionary style actively encourages and embraces innovation and change (Curtin, 2001). Bass (1998) also considers transformational leadership empowering, motivating colleagues to reach and perform to their maximum potential. Conversely Transactional leadership is thought to be inappropriate when teams are demoralised, demotivated or stressed (Stordeur, 2001) NOTES FOR CONCLUSION Nurses in the present working climate have to accept necessary changes Not only should they accept changes as they take place, but should also be constantly reviewing working practices and being proactive in implementing changes as and when necessary. If this does not happen, nurses will have to deal with the fallout of changes imposed on nursing by others Overall, although management skills are important and necessary, the future requires leadership to provide the dynamics essential to challenge and lead organisations into an era where management of rapid change is the necessary key for future survival. Nursing leaders are ideally positioned to influence these changes and to play a major role in facilitating the changes Transforming Community Services: dh 2009 Ambition, Action, Achievement Transforming Services for Children, Young People and their Families Developing and supporting people to design, deliver and lead high quality community services Actions to consider in developing a social movement approach to change owned and lead by local services and practitioners Transformational change happens when those delivering care are motivated and inspired to do things differently. The Next Stage Review emphasised the need for a high quality workforce to deliver high quality care and introduced the healthcare professional for the 21st century being practitioner, partner, leader. Contributors to the programme have built on the concept of practitioner, partner, leader to develop attributes for community practitioners that will generate radical improvement. Many good initiatives flounder because insufficient attention is paid to the staff themselves and the actions needed to create the climate in which the desired attributes can ensure success. Organisations implementing change will want to consider how they promote such attributes in their own workforce, and the action needed on a number of fronts. How staff are educated and trained, managed and led, how services are commissioned and regulated, and how performance is monitored, can all contribute to the creation of a positive, enabling culture in which staff constantly strive to improve safety, effectiveness and experience of care. Conversely, the same factors can mitigate against empowerment, motivation and personal accountability, reducing the likelihood of success. Social movement A group of people with a common ideology who try together to achieve certain general goals; features include: Energy Mass Pace Momentum Passion Commitment Spread Sustainability References ADAIR, J. 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Knowing this helps keep detached and non-judgemental when experiencing the anger of someone who is very upset. 3 Bargaining Traditionally the bargaining stage for people facing death can involve attempting to bargain with whatever God the person believes in. People facing less serious trauma can bargain or seek to negotiate a compromise. For example Can we still be friends?.. when facing a break-up. Bargaining rarely provides a sustainable solution, especially if its a matter of life or death. 4 Depression Also referred to as preparatory grieving. In a way its the dress rehearsal or the practice run for the aftermath although this stage means different things depending on whom it involves. Its a sort of acceptance with emotional attachment. Its natural to feel sadness and regret, fear, uncertainty, etc. It shows that the person has at least begun to accept the reality. 5 Acceptance Again this stage definitely varies according to the persons situation, although broadly it is an indication that there is some emotional detachment and objectivity. People dying can enter this stage a long time before the people they leave behind, who must necessarily pass through their own individual stages of dealing with the grief. Based on the Grief Cycle model first published in On Death Dying, Elisabeth KÃ ¼bler-Ross, 1969. Interpretation by Alan Chapman 2006-2009.